The IBSA dialogue forum (India, Brazil and South Africa) has been organizing high-level annual summits since 2003 between presidents and heads of government in the objective of strengthening South-South cooperation in many sectors. It acts with multilateral organizations to favor commercial interests and permanent compliance with the United Nations Security Council in these three countries.

The ice line of a star marks the boundary beyond which an entire series of volatile substances condense in the form of ice. The ice line of the sun is at 5 astronomical units from its surface, that is, between the asteroid belt and the orbit of Jupiter.

The International Council on Monuments and Sites, ICOMOS, is a worldwide association of professionals who are concerned with the conservation and protection of monuments, groups of historic buildings and cultural heritage sites. It was created in 1965 in Warsaw and Cracow, Poland. The Venice Charter was adopted by the Second International Congress of Architects and Technicians of Historic Monuments in 1964; the Venice Charter is the founding text of that organization, and remains its primary statement of principle.

ICOMOS is a non-governmental international organization whose principal activity is the promotion of the theory, method and technique of conservation, protection and affirmation of the worth and value of monuments and historic sites.

ICOMOS is also mentioned in the World Heritage Convention of UNESCO as the consultative agency for the implementation of the Convention, and it acts as a scientific advisor for the Committee on World Heritage regarding the inclusion of monuments and cultural sites on the World Heritage List. ICOMOS has observer status in regard to the Council of Europe.

Icterus is a yellow discoloration of the skin, commonly known as jaundice.
Icterus occurs if the liver is suffering from an acute disease, such as hepatitis, but it can also be the sign of hepatic decompensation, when the liver damaged by cirrhosis can no longer process bilirubin (resulting from a degradation of the red blood cells). When this bilirubin can no longer be evacuated through the bile to the digestive system, it accumulates in the blood. The skin and the whites of the eyes become yellow while the stools turn pale ("clay" coloured). Icterus may be accompanied by severe itching, due to the accumulation of bile salts under the skin.

According to Le Robert dictionary, it refers to a collection of organised concepts allowing a society to define its nature, the way it functions and the objectives it pursues. While in terms of the ternary system (a way of thinking elaborated in the 10th century by scholars) the word is incontestably applicable, its use in terms of Franco-Italia could be problematical. Despite the multitude of vague reflections tossed about by the “court authors”, the concepts gathered here all tend towards a single goal: to define a French Italy and Frenchified Italians.  Since the various ways of achieving this contribute to the elaboration of this way of thinking, the use of the term “ideology” is altogether relevant here.

Capacity of an antigen to induce an immune response, and make the body produce antibodies.

Therapeutic strategy which aims to improve the functioning of an organism’s defense or immune system.

A school of painting privileging, in its choice of subjects, light, the outdoors and the panoply of fugitive impressions which have their source in objects which are necessarily in motion. Within it, influenced from 1874 by the innovative work of a Manet (1832-1883), these artists – amongst whom we can identify Frédéric Bazille (1841-1870), Paul Cézanne (1839-1906), Auguste Renoir (1841-1919) and above all Claude Monet (1840-1926) – were opposed to realism and were sensitive to everything which touched on the transitive, even the evanescent. But the term is also applied to the manner in which musicians who, like Claude Debussy (1862-1918), have contributed to revolutionising our auditory perception, particularly through the fluidity of the sounds and sequences of their compositions. Characteristics which are discovered, mutatis mutandis, in a number of symbolist authors drawn to the depiction of the delicacy of sentiments and feelings.

In video, incrustation consists of electronically separating part of an image, creating a ‘hole’ and enabling the inlaying of another image in its place.

a collection of events appearing at an irritation point following the invasion of a pathogenic agent. The inflammation is manifested by four main signs: redness, warmth, swelling and pain.

Various groups of flowers.

The meristem which initiates floral meristems, but which remains itself undifferentiated so it can produce a group of flowers or 'inflorescence'.

An analysis technique based on the absorption of infrared radiation by a sample whose properties and composition one wants to study. The analysis is carried out by scanning wave lengths and obtaining an infrared spectrum which presents the absorption bands.

A compound whose function is to slow or stop a chemical process.

a component of the immune system corresponding to non-specific defence mechanisms such as physical barriers (skin, eyelashes, mucous membranes, etc.), polynuclear neutrophils, phagocytic cells, the complement system, etc.

Compound that contains neither carbon nor hydrogen (water, sulphate, ammonia, etc.), as opposed to organic compounds.

These pigments come from mineral resources. In particular, they contain metals such as iron or cadmium. Inorganic pigments are most often opaque and matt.

A special ecclesiastical tribunal created by the papacy to fight against heresy through means of a special procedure, the inquisition (inquisitio). Instituted in 1199 by Pope Innocent III to get the better of the Catharist movement in south-west France, the Inquisition was primarily active from the 13th to the 16th centuries in Christian Europe (apart from England). The inquisitional process (interrogation, torture, punishments, ranging from flagellation to the stake) was initially confided to the Dominican order and was particularly used in the 16th century against Muslims and Jews.

Law that gathers the rules related to intellectual creations and to distinctive signs. It covers artistic, literary and industrial property.

Refers to all interactions between macromolecules (DNA, RNA, proteins) within a cell.

Interferons are proteins produced by our immune system in response to certain attacks, for instance, by viruses. They stimulate immunity through various complementary routes. They also participate in the rejection of cancerous cells.
It is currently possible to produce human interferons for pharmaceutical use, which are used as antiviral and anticancer drugs, and in the treatment of multiple sclerosis.  
In the case of hepatitis C, α interferon is coupled with polyethylene glycol to increase its duration of action. This “pegylated interferon”, combined with ribavirin, gives very good results. 
Unfortunately, interferons cause rather unpleasant side effects, such as pronounced flu-like symptoms (fever, fatigue, mylagia).

In a particle of rock, the intergrowth texture illustrates the way the crystals of the different minerals that make up the rock are interwoven.

Regulatory molecules produced when the body is subjected to microbial attack. Thus, for example, interleukin-1 acts on the neurons of the hypothalamus which thus make the body temperature rise beyond 37°C. For its part IL-6 causes an acute reaction and can play an anti-inflammatory role.

The principal world authority concerning scientific and technological co-operation in the field of the peaceful use of nuclear energy. The IAEA has also been given responsibility for an important mission to avoid the proliferation of nuclear weapons. The Agency currently brings together 153 Member States. Its headquarters is in Vienna. It was founded by the United Nations, in 1957, as a response to the ‘Atoms for peace’ speech made by the United States President, Dwight Eisenhower, who suggested the creation of an international body responsible for promoting and monitoring the civil and peaceful use of nuclear energy. As an offshoot of the United Nations (UN), one of its major objectives is to assure the safety of populations and states in fighting against any illicit attempt to use nuclear fission for military purposes. To guarantee and verify the peaceful use of nuclear energy, the IAEA is responsible for inspecting nuclear activities and installations throughout the world. It verifies that the Non Nuclear Weapons States (NNWS) which have signed the Treaty on the Non-Proliferation of Nuclear Weapons (NPT) respect their commitments in order to avoid the peaceful use of nuclear technology being diverted to military ends.

To succeed in this mission it encourages non signatory states to join the NPT and conclude safeguard agreements. After the discovery of a certain number of clandestine programmes, a strengthening of the controls was defined in an Additional Protocol to the NPT. If the IAEA can demonstrate that a State has not respected its obligations, it refers it to the UN’s Security Council, which decides what consequences should follow.

In recent years, activity in this domain has been marked by the difficult relationships Western nations and the IAEA has had with Iran, suspected of wishing to equip itself with an atomic weapon in order to ‘safeguard’ its territory (render it beyond attack) against the potential threats from within its geopolitical environment, and notably from Israel, a country equipped with a nuclear arsenal. To date no formal proof has nevertheless been produced that Iran is developing a nuclear weapon.

Moreover the IAEA and its Director General, Mohamed ElBaradei, jointly received the Nobel Peace Prize, on December 1, 2005, for ‘their efforts in preventing prevent nuclear energy being used for military ends.’

Time scale founded on the frequency of radiation emitted by caesium-133 atoms. A second is  precisely defined as being the duration of 9192631770 periods of the radiation corresponding to the transition between the hyperfine levels F=3 and F=4 of the fundamental state of the caesium-133 atom.

The International Criminal Court (ICC) is the first permanent international criminal court created by treaty to contribute to ending impunity for the most serious crimes which affect the international community, such as crimes of genocide, crimes against humanity and war crimes. It is governed by its founding treaty, the Rome Statute, signed by 124 countries. It sits in The Hague (Netherlands). 

The ICC is an independent international organisation which does not belong to the system of the United Nations. It is used as a last resort. It does not intervene when a case is already being investigated or prosecuted in a national legal system unless these cases are not conducted in good faith, for example, if they have been used to shield an individual from criminal responsibility.

Institute of Medicine, this has since become the National Academy of Medicine. An American organ which brings together scientific experts from committees in order to determine independent recommendations and opinions.

The ionosphere is the Earth’s upper atmosphere, which extends approximately from an altitude of 85 km to 800 km. Its name refers to its state of electrical conductivity which is characterised by a partial ionisation of the gasses. The ionosphere can be subdivided into three layers (D, E, F) according to the concentration in ions.

The Islets of Langerhans cells are pancreatic cells grouped together in small clusters that produce various hormones such as insulin.

The International Organization of Standardization) or ISO is a non-governmental organisation (NGO). It is constituted of the specialised national organisations of 160 countries. The ISO has the aim of producing international standards in the industrial and commercial domains, called ISO standards. These standards thus recognised are very useful for governments, economic organisations of every kind, regulatory authorities, professionals in the evaluation of conformity, the manufacturers, suppliers and consumers of goods and services, both public and private. The ISO headquarters are at Geneva. The ISO has established close to 19,000 international standards in the most varied domains. ISO 65 defines the conditions of transparency and independence for certification bodies. ISO 65 accreditation thus certifies the independence of FLO-Cert, the transparency of its activity, as well as the impartiality and effectiveness of its monitoring in terms of respecting fair trade regulations.

Isokinetic tests aim to evaluate muscular function in motion, at a constant speed, with a resistance that automatically adapts to the force deployed.

Analysis of force development during a given effort.

Military expeditions sent by the kings of France to the Peninsula. It was Charles VIII who took the initiative to leave from Lyon in 1494, considering himself the heir to the House of Anjou’s rights over the kingdom of Naples.   His successor, Louis XII, the grandson of Valentina Visconti, the sister of the last duke of Milan born into this family, pursued the Italian ambitions of his predecessor. But despite Francis I’s victory at Marignan in 1515, the battle that was followed by the defeat of Pavia in 1525, French domination in Italy was short-lived. The country then passed under the imperial control of Charles V, a prelude to that of Spain which, moreover, benefited the interests – particularly territorial – of the Holy See. These wars ended with the treaties of Cateau-Cambrésis (2–3 April 1559).

signifies the act of repeating a process habitually with the objective of reaching a desired goal or a required or necessary result.  Each repetition of this process is also called an iteration and the results of an iteration are used as a starting point for the following iteration.

International Units per day or per month.